21 June 2024 : Review article
A Review of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology Studies for the Assessment of Over-the-Counter Medicines Used as Recreational Drugs: The Example of Dextromethorphan
Szymon Plewa
ABCDEF 1*, Dagmara Pietkiewicz ABCDEF 1, Zenon J. Kokot AE 2, Jan Matysiak AE 1
DOI: 10.12659/MSM.944120
Med Sci Monit 2024; 30:e944120
Introduction
The Basics of Wastewater Analysis
The Main Methods of Wastewater Analysis
Previous Reviews and Studies from Other Countries on WBE
Dextromethorphan
Examples of OTC Drugs That Are Used Recreationally
Analytical Methods for Detecting Dextromethorphan and/or Its Transformation Products in Environmental Water Samples
Future Perspectives
Conclusions
References
Table 1 An overview of analytical methods of determination of dextromethorphan and/or its transformation products in environmental water samples.
| Authors | Analytes | Sample collection | Sample preparation | Technique | Column Specific | Mobile phase | Ionization | Analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marina Celia Campos-Mañas, et al (2020) []18 | Dextromethorphan, dextrorophan, N-demethyldextrorphan | River water, WWTP effluents | SPE – HLB cartridges | LC-QTOF-MS | Zorbax XDB-C8 column (4.6×150 mm; 5-um particle size) | Mobile phase A: water with 0.1% formic acidMobile phase B: acetonitrile | ESI (+) | Quantitative (dextromethorphan, dextrorphan), Semiquantitative (N-demethyldextrorphan) |
| Marina Celia Campos-Mañas, et al (2019) []19 | Dextromethorphan, dextrorophan, N-demethyldextrorphan | Upstream, wastewater and downstream sources | Automated SPE | LC-QTOF-MS | Zorbax XDB-C8 column (4.6×150 mm; 3.5-μm particle size) | Mobile phase A: water with 0.1% formic acidMobile phase B: acetonitrile | ESI (+) | Quantitative (dextromethorphan, dextrorophan) Qualitative (N-demethyldextrorphan) |
| Emily E. Burns, et al (2017) []16 | Dextromethorphan | River water in the vicinity of wastewater discharge | 0.7-mm glass microfiber (GF/F) disposable filters | LC-QqQ-MS | Zorbax Eclipse Plus – C18 column (3.00×100 mm; 1.8-μm – particle size) | Mobile phase A: HPLC-grade water modified with 1 M formic acid and 1 M ammonium formateMobile phase B: 100% HPLC-grade methanol | ESI (+) | Quantitative |
| Kevin S. Jewell, et al (2013) []17 | Dextrorphan, NO2-dextrorphan | Raw wastewater, WWTP influents and effluents | SPE – HLB cartridges | LC-QqQ-MS | Synergi Polar-RP column 130 (3.00×150 mm, 4-μm particle size) | Mobile phase A: 0.05% acetic acid in waterMobile phase B: acetonitrile | ESI (+) | Quantitative (dextrorphan), Qualitative (NO2-dextrorphan) |
| Golala Arya, et al (2017) []22 | Dextromethorphan | River water in the vicinity of wastewater discharge, sediments | SPE – HLB cartridges | GC-MS | HP-5MS 30 m×0.25 mm (i.d.), 0.25-mm thick film, capillary column | Carrier gas: helium | EI | Quantitative |
| E. Michael Thurman, et al (2012) []20 | Dextromethorphan, Dextrorphan, N-demethyldextrorphan, Dextrorphan glucuronide, N-demethyldextrorphan glucuronide | Surface water impacted by wastewater | SPE – HLB cartridges | LC-QTOF-MS | Zorbax Eclipse-C8 column (4.6×150 mm; 3.5-μm particle size) | Mobile phase A: acetonitrileMobile phase B: water with 0.1% formic acid | ESI (+) | Quantitative (dextromethorphan, dextrorphan) Qualitative (N-demethyldextrorphan, dextrorphan glucuronide, N-demethyldextrorphan glucuronide) |
| Ingus Perkons, et al (2020) []63 | Dextrorphan | WWTPs influents and effluents | dSPE sorbent (C18-E/Strata-X-A, 3: 1, w/w) | FT-ICR-MS | – | – | ESI (+) (−) | Qualitative |
| Gabrielle P. Black, et al (2021) []21 | Dextrorphan | Sewage sludge form WWTPs | SPE Agilent Bond Elut Plexa | LC-QTOF-MS | Zorbax Eclipse Plus C18 column (2.1×100 mm; 1.8 μm particle size) | Mobile phase A: deionized water with 0.1% formic acidMobile phase B: acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid | ESI (+) | Qualitative |
| Lawrence M. Madikizela, et al (2022) []61 | Dextromethorphan, Dextrorphan, N-demethyldextrorphan | River water before WWTPs and river water with WWTPs effluents | automated SPE | UHPLC-QTOF-MS | Luna Omega C18 column (4.6×50 mm; 3 μm particle size) | Mobile phase A: deionized water with 0.1% formic acidMobile phase B: acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid | ESI (+) | Qualitative |
| Samuel A. Miller, et al (2020) []23 | Dextromethorphan | WWTPs influents and effluents | Clean Screen DAU SPE | GC-MS | HP-5MS 30m×0.25 mm (i.d.), 0.25-mm thick film, capillary column | Carrier gas: helium | EI | Quantitative |
| dSPE – dispersive solid phase extraction; EI – electron impact ionization; ESI – electrospray ionization; FT-ICR-MS – fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry; GC-MS – gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; LC-MS – liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; LC/QTOF-MS – liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry; LC-QTOF-MS – liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry; LC-QqQ-MS – liquid chromatography triple tandem mass spectrometry; MS/MS – quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry; SPE – solid-phase extraction; SPE-HLB – solid-phase extraction – hydrophilic lipophilic balance; TPs – transformation products; UHPLC-QTOF-MS – liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry; WWTP – wastewater treatment plan. | ||||||||