22 November 2025 : Clinical Research
McCollough and Watercolor Effects: Visual Illusions that Fade in Early Alzheimer’s Disease
Vaiva Sutnikiene
ABCDEF 1*, Gyte Pakulaite-Kazliene CDE 1, Egle Audronyte CDE 1, Justina Kuzmickaite DE 1, Gintaras Kaubrys ACDE 1
DOI: 10.12659/MSM.950194
Med Sci Monit 2025; 31:e950194
Table 1 Overview of participant characteristics.
| CG (n=26) | MCI (n=27) | MD (n=28) | Statistic (χ2 [2]/H(2), p) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female (%)* | 12 (46%) | 19 (70%) | 18 (64%) | 3.09, 0.21 |
| Age* | 73 (9) | 75 (11) | 77 (9) | 4.63, 0.10 |
| Years of education* | 16 (1) | 15 (4) | 15 (3) | 4.37, 0.11 |
| GDS* | 4 (2) | 5 (1) | 4 (2) | 1.40, 0.50 |
| HIS* | 1 (1) | 1 (1) | 1 (1) | 1.84, 0.40 |
| MMSE** | 29 (1) | 25 (3) | 22 (2) | 72.02, <0.001 |
| ADAS-Cog 13** | 12.5 (5.67) | 22 (7.66) | 31 (7.5) | 74.26, <0.001 |
| CDR-SB** | 0 (0) | 1.5 (1) | 4.5 (0.5) | 53.07, <0.001 |
| Ishihara test, number of errors*** | 0 (0) | 0 (2) | 1 (3) | 11.75, 0.003 |
| Use of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (%)**** | 0 | 1 (3.7%) | 10 (35.71%) | 18.02, <0.001 |
| Unless otherwise specified, the data are shown as medians and interquartile ranges. Statistical significance is set at * Groups did not differ significantly; ** Three groups differ statistically significantly; *** CG and MD differ statistically significantly; **** CG and MD, MCI, and MD differ statistically significantly. MD – mild dementia; MCI – mild cognitive impairment; CG – control group; GDS – Geriatric Depression Scale; HIS – Hachinski Ischemic Score; ADAS-Cog 13 – Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale 13; CDR-SB – Clinical Dementia Rating Sum of Boxes; MMSE – Mini-Mental State Examination. | ||||