Comparison of Muscle Load, Comfort, Usability, and Time-On-Task Across 3 Wheelchair Handle Orientations and Ground Types: A Randomized Crossover Study

08 March 2026 : Clinical Research

Yen-Hui Lin

^{ABCG 1,2}, Chien-Chun Chang

^{BEF 3}, Victor Ei-Wen Lo

^{ABE 4}, Ting-Jen Chen^{EF 1}, Wei-Hsien Hong

^{ABCDF 3*}

DOI: 10.12659/MSM.951420

Med Sci Monit 2026; 32:e951420

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Table 2 Repeated-measures ANOVA results for handle orientation and ground type effects (df, F, P, partial η2).

Main effect	Mauchly’s test			Greenhouse-Geisser		F value	p value	η2

	Mauchly’s W	df	p	G-G ɛ	df

Right ECR

H	0.519	2	<0.001^*	0.675	1.350	26.325	<0.001^*	0.715
G	0.465	2	<0.001^*	0.651	1.303	67.760	<0.001^*	0.494
I	0.464	4	0.021^*	0.747	2.989	14.502	<0.001^*	0.349

Right FCU

H	0.878	2	0.184	0.891	1.782	59.601	<0.001^*	0.688
G	0.941	2	0.454	0.944	1.889	36.649	<0.001^*	0.576
I	0.268	4	<0.001^*	0.629	2.516	8.811	<0.001^*	0.246

Left ECR

H	0.517	2	<0.001^*	0.672	1.348	52.372	<0.001^*	0.660
G	0.352	2	<0.001^*	0.607	1.214	36.142	<0.001^*	0.572
I	0.448	4	0.016^*	0.752	3.007	15.905	<0.001^*	0.371

Left FCU

H	0.968	2	0.655	0.969	1.938	64.295	<0.001^*	0.704
G	0.963	2	0.615	0.965	1.929	38.028	<0.001^*	0.585
I	0.495	4	0.037^*	0.728	2.913	17.202	<0.001^*	0.389

Right BB

H	0.965	2	<0.001^*	0.966	1.932	8.346	0.001^*	0.236
G	0.530	2	0.628	0.680	1.360	21.369	<0.001^*	0.442
I	0.616	4	0.196	0.826	3.304	2.086	0.088	0.072
ECR – extensor carpi radialis; FCU – flexor carpi ulnaris; BB – biceps brachii; H – handle orientations. G – ground types; I – interaction; df – degrees of freedom; F value – F-test value; G-G – Greenhouse-Geisser; ^*

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